Fallible Human Perception
Errors in Social Information Transmission - Revised

D. F. Antico



To my favorite high school Biology teacher, whom I loved to hate and whose scientism set me on a relentless and never-ending quest. May the generation I am part of solve the riddles which puzzled yours.



INTRODUCTION

"Passive acceptance of the teacher's wisdom is easy to most boys and girls. It involves no effort of independent thought, and seems rational because the teacher knows more than his pupils; it is moreover the way to win the favour of the teacher unless he is a very exceptional man. Yet the habit of passive acceptance is a disastrous one in later life. It causes man to seek and to accept a leader, and to accept as a leader whoever is established in that position." Bertrand Russell (1872 - 1970)

On the evening of March 13, 1964, a young Queens woman was returning to her home after work. Ms. Genovese was well known in her neighborhood. The young bar manager was fondly referred to by the nickname "Kitty". After parking her car, she saw a man walking towards her. Three doors from her home, she was attacked with a knife, not once, but repeatedly. The case provoked a fair degree of public reaction and was picked up by several news outlets.

According to local police, the attacker had three chances to kill Ms. Genovese during a thirty-five minute period. The man seemingly returned on two occasions to complete the job. If someone had made a phone call during the first attack, her life may have been saved. When the call was finally made, the police arrived in two minutes. When both the press and the police began to delve into the murder case, they realized something which shocked them further; thirty eight witnesses had heard the young woman's cries for help. Only one of them finally grabbed the phone, approximately half an hour later. By then, she had passed away.

Then New York Times Metropolitan Editor, A. M. Rosenthal, covered the story and later wrote extensively on the subject. (1) Writing about the mixed feelings he experienced due to the case, he wrote: "I find it difficult to make a clean and totally honest distinction between my interest in the story as a newspaperman and a peculiar, paradoxical feeling that there is in the tale of Catherine Genovese a revelation about the human condition so appalling to contemplate that only good can come from forcing oneself to confront the truth."

Several letters arrived at the Times, some outraged by the display of apathy, others complaining about police responsiveness in general. Rosenthal remarks that "It seemed to me that there were several patterns that ran through many of the letters. The first was terrible anger at the witnesses. These letter writers were totally unable to identify themselves with the witnesses and were full of a strange passion against them."

Interviewing the area neighbors, a french Queens woman was quoted as saying: "Let's forget the whole thing. It is a quiet neighborhood, good to live in. What happened, happened."

In the realm of conventional wisdom, "positive" experiences tend to receive more attention than "negative" ones. "Confirmation bias" is but one entry in a long list of cognitive biases wherein it is shown that individuals seek and place more importance on evidence that confirms their beliefs. But the study of negative experiences, what psychology has termed abnormal behavior, offers just as many insights into the nature of humankind. Which one of these two areas, however, has more incidence in our everyday actions?

In order to settle the question of which one is more prevalent, we need to find a way to measure the influence of both positive and negative experiences. This requires quite a bit of detective work. What if, for instance, the latter kind of behavior were to somehow be embedded within the former? What if mainstream channels were sprinkled, even inundated, by largely unacknowledged influences?

The following is a multidisciplinary study, delving into the evasive limbo existing in the drives, thinking mechanisms and preconceptions which have a bearing on our daily mental constructions. Reading between the lines can prove to be a difficult task, but adopting that stance may reveal a whole new text within the book of life. There are, in fact, certain new fields in science which deal with these areas precisely; neuroscience, genetics and evolutionary psychology. It will be argued that this "dark side" not only has a deep influence over our actions, but that it is often their determinant cause.

A point needs to be made regarding the universality of the evidence which will be put forth. The work of Shweder and Bourne (2) seems to suggest that westerners could be "culturally primed to search for abstract summaries of the autonomous individual." Non-westerners, on the contrary, may be "culturally primed to see context and social relationships as a necessary condition for behavior." In other words, an analytic mode of thought vs. a holistic mode of thought. Trait inference vs. situational inference. However, many of the studies which will be cited were conducted to cover large populations; hence the line between East and West may, in fact, become somewhat thin.

This writing also analyses the personalities of individuals who have decided to investigate these seemingly negative aspects of existence; intellectuals, and how they are affected on a deep personal level by their inquiries. We will also attempt to analyze how they relate to those who only see "the positive side of things" and whether this is a realistic stance to adopt. By this, the question is asked regarding which standpoint offers the most faithful appraisal of reality. Post-structuralist concerns will be addressed in following chapters.

What led me to perform this study was a personal odyssey which I underwent and that pointed, sometimes painfully, to the existence of another world, co-existing with our own. By this I do not mean a literal parallel world, but a figurative reality which is seldom seen and much less acknowledged, except in certain circles of erudition. I've been in and out of college, exploring different alternatives. However, my obsession with the subject has led me to perform an analysis "out of the box", which, while more tedious, helped me to gain a fresh look, unbounded by the constrains a single-discipline outlook entails. As a youngster, I was one of those children who had to understand a school subject completely in order to apply the knowledge. Learning by repetition is something I simply could not bring myself to do.

THE TIGHT ROPE

"Science increases our power in proportion as it lowers our pride." Claude Bernard (1813-78) French physiologist.

It was a wet monday evening, the kind which made you want to stay indoors. I was coming home from work, walking down the uninviting streets of the Monserrat borough in Buenos Aires.

I had been diagnosed with a form of bruxism, which affected my jaw. The condition gave me a high degree of muscular stress. Constant stress puts a person in a state of hyperesthesia. You become a coyote, seeing and listening with more sharpness than most around you. You are, however, a rather high-strung coyote. My college acquaintances would find amusing my comments regarding our classmates. Somehow, I seemed to know exactly who had a liking for whom, how a certain boy approached girls; and the girls consequent realization that he was something of a cheater.

That evening, upon entering my apartment, I turned on the television as people usually do. I kept wondering what exactly was wrong with what I was seeing on TV. Argentina is a country with a very timid left wing tradition. Many TV commentators would place themselves in that tradition. I kept thinking, however, that these apparent progressives sounded a bit hypocritical, as though they were trying to hide the fact they were, in fact, populists. Populism is in stark contrast with intellectualism. Intellectuals are seen as part of an elite (something true) engaging in sophistry and deceit, while the populace is considered to be somehow far more virtuous.

For over four decades, a process of "brain drain" has been taking place in the third world. Its thrust stems from the fact that industrialized countries actively recruit intellectuals from overseas. These, in turn, find themselves at a crossroads. They may have to leave family and friends behind, but about the only way they have to pursue a career is to leave their country of origin, as a developing country which doesn't even have strong science policies can't offer much to highly trained professionals. (3)

There are, however, other factors, of the unseen kind, which may be involved. In a world where cleverness is more valued than intelligence, could it be that those who "stubbornly" seek intelligence and social change may somehow attain "low self defenses" in the interpersonal realm? It doesn't take a leap of imagination to see that certain people get into more social problems, even political trouble, due to upholding contestatory beliefs which clash with society.

One of history's most important scientific personalities, Charles Darwin, felt he head lost touch with his "people skills" due to his obsession with scientific thought. He wrote in his autobiography: "This curious and lamentable loss of the higher aesthetic tastes is all the odder, as books on history, biographies, and travels (independently of any scientific facts which they may contain), and essays on all sorts of subjects interest me as much as ever they did. My mind seems to have become a kind of machine for grinding general laws out of large collections of facts, but why this should have caused the atrophy of that part of the brain alone, on which the higher tastes depend, I cannot conceive. A man with a mind more highly organized or better constituted than mine, would not, I suppose, have thus suffered; and if I had to live my life again, I would have made a rule to read some poetry and listen to some music at least once every week." (4)

Commenting on the work of neurobiologist Steve Johnson on videogames being "good for the brain," Hugo A. Míguez, a latin Conicet scientist, asserts that "he's probably as right as in assuring that separating and putting back together a Colt 38 revolver, on a daily basis, stimulates the development of psicomotricity. (..) the alternative of a lego-type game could be recommended, which develops the same dexterity, but without the "collateral damage."" (5) It could be hypothesized that, for a hardcore intellectual, life can be highly "virtual" and thus, engaging in intellectual exercises all day can be less than beneficial, as we shall see elsewhere.

M. Voracek, from the University of Vienna Medical School, holds that suicide is positively correlated with a high intelligence quotient. (6) His findings rest on the infamous national IQ charts devised by Professor Richard Lynn. The word "devised" is used here purposely. I reached Mr. Lynn and I inquired about Argentina's, my own country, 96 average points of national IQ. What shocked me was that the southernmost nation in the world had ranked just one point below Canada, one of the most advanced countries on the planet, possessive of an excellent educational system. To my surprise, Mr. Lynn told me that he had figured out Argentina's national IQ by comparison with other countries on the region, while also taking into account the presence of a 85% Caucasian population in the country, something which was recently proven to be a myth. (7) Beyond the flagrant racist connotations, the methodology has blatant problems of logic. More so, it begs the question, by trying to prove its point by underlining the point itself, instead of bringing new information to the table.

Dr Keith Ashcroft, a Manchester forensic psychologist, considers that "suicide is indeed more common among the professional classes: scientists like vets and dentists have notoriously high suicide rates." Aschcroft also considers that intellectuals often have bad "people skills." (6)

Analyzing the literature of intelligence vis-à-vis self-destruction, a picture emerges pointing to several studies, chief among them the Terman Genetic Study of Genius, showing wildly heterogeneous and conflicting results, as well as, yes, skewed results. What can be propounded, however, is that the "intellectual personality" has certain problems to deal with that normal individuals do not. An intellectual is faced with an often intangible world which is usually not available to others.

Which faults in human cognition do scientists warn against yet often fall prey to?

WELCOME TO THE DARK SIDE

"If a man is offered a fact which goes against his instincts, he will scrutinize it closely, and unless the evidence is overwhelming, he will refuse to believe it. If, on the other hand, he is offered something which affords a reason for acting in accordance to his instincts, he will accept it even on the slightest evidence." Bertrand Russell (1872 - 1970)

In the past few decades, a curious phenomenon has been taking place in the realm of the so called social sciences. Sociology's prominence has diminished while Psychology has become central to human understanding. The backdrop to this phenomenon is no other than a reigning idiocentrism across western society. The former has slowly been replaced with fields like Evolutionary Psychology, a promising yet fragile endeavour. The latter, to some extent, has taken the place of confession as understood in the catholic tradition. The more cynical hold it has somehow also absorbed that institution's power.

When a new paradigm is adopted by science and consequently by the populace, tells us Kuhn, it suddenly becomes air-tight so as to enable steady experimentation with that paradigm as a guiding light. This mechanism, naturally, can also be found to operate in the human mind. Human beings, above all, become desperate when in the clutches of uncertainty, as depicted in the principle of cruelty.

The brain is economical; it simplifies the world around it so as to be able to grasp it. This "sparse coding," for which there is biological evidence, (8) poignantly underlines one of the less glamorous realities of humankind; that our mental systems are, much like an unguarded computer, highly vulnerable to an attack by a malicious "hacker" trying to surreptitiously alter vital content. There are, after all, only seven basic brain responses. Are these enough?

Psychology actually has a name for our denial to accept our seeming state of naivete. Over-claiming is the tendency to claim more knowledge than we actually posses. It is the difference with being familiar with and knowing a given area of knowledge. How large a problem does it represent? Painfully, a very large one. J. D. Brown conducted a set of surveys showing that the majority of surveyed individuals claim that they are above average intelligence, a concept that doesn't hold up as evidenced by over-claiming and other studies. (9) Intelligent individuals do exist, but several of them don't have the necessity to promote themselves as intelligent.

It seems, however, that the enhancement of self worth is more prevalent in the western world. In fact, quite the opposite is true for "collectivists" in regards to individualists. (10) This does not mean, however, that individualists don't function within the limits of a society.

Human beings have a need to belong, which explains why they are willing to conform to societal mores. "Existing evidence supports the hypothesis that the need to belong is a powerful, fundamental, and extremely pervasive motivation." (11) In fact, more than a few philosophers, artists and writers have been able to gain greater focus on their works while in states of isolation. (12) Of course, if individuals remain cut off for too long, this may lead to a state of near pathology, as varies studies suggest. (13) Is it a surprise then, that the greatest minds in the history of mankind, who strived to see things afresh, such as Descartes, Nietzsche and Darwin, were often hermits who felt as strangers in their own lands?

Unintended interpretation and perception of social environments on phenomena as automaticity, stereotyping and prejudicial behavior, feelings of like and dislike and attitude change by persuasive messages have been studied extensively. In one experiment centering on spontaneous trait inference, researchers found out that: "When faces were paired with implied traits in a recognition test, participants falsely recognized these traits more often than unrelated traits paired with the same faces or the same traits paired with familiar faces." (14)

It can be seen that our sensory apparatus has a tendency to change our perceptions to safeguard our mental wellbeing. Scientists in fact "believe that the individual variation in responding to stress is somewhat dependent on a person’s perception of external events. (...) Thus, by controlling your perception of events, you can do much to avoid the harmful consequences of stress." (15)

What sociologists call collective behavior, social structure and the realm of the cultural are dynamic entities. But they are composed, to a degree, of static elements, which can be studied.

In Obedience to Authority: Current Perspectives on the Milgram Paradigm (16), certain controversial, though highly interesting, experiments on submission carried out during the seventies are recounted. Inspired in the holocaust, the tests put individuals in a position were they could inflict harm on other persons. Since they were told responsibility was taken by someone else, a remarkably high percentage of them went ahead and did so, even though their victims were actually paid actors who were not put in danger. The situation becomes far more serious, however, when it is explained that these kinds of experiments have been replicated successfully in recent times.

Milgram's seminal experiments bring an issue to the discussion; what exactly was the cause of such controversy? The fact that the subjects were put through such an ordeal, it has been pointed out. It seems, however, that this may have had as much to do with people's inability to face themselves.

Sadism, of course, is yet another reason to inflict pain on someone. Lack of empathy ensures that the perpetrator will not feel for his victim. This mechanism, most clearly illustrated in torture, was explained succinctly by Judith Herman, a Harvard psychiatrist: "It is very tempting to take the side of the perpetrator. All the perpetrator asks is that the bystander do nothing. He appeals to the universal desire to see, hear, and speak no evil. The victim, on the contrary, asks the bystander to share the burden of pain. The victim demands action, engagement, and remembering." (17)

As stated earlier, there are a number of new fields in science which, with more or less success, are sailing the waters of deciphering human experience.

THE NEW SCIENCES

"You can't walk alone. Many have given the illusion but none have really walked alone. Man is not made that way. Each man is bedded in his people, their history, their culture, and their values." Peter Abrahams (1919-)

How do genes and environment mix? For any given behavior, relevant genes and environmental factors number in the dozens, hundreds, or even thousands. Individuals who have a particular allele for the gene called ALDH-2 experience harsh reactions if alcohol enters their system. It is estimated that up to half of Asian individuals have this particular allele. Vision, for instance, is a heritable trait. So is Alzheimer's disease. Researchers estimate that ADHD, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, for which there has been a diagnosis epidemic, is 70 to 80 percent heritable. (18)

A MAOA genetic profile in certain prisoners coupled with being abused as a child lend credence to the idea crime can actually have at least some genetic predisposition. Gene-environment interaction is more clearly seen in this case, as there clearly is no "gene for criminality."

In the recent years, a debate around the field of “evolutionary psychology” has been taking place. Two groups, representing two opposed ideologies, are disputing the right to define the afore-mentioned term for the rest of us. On the one hand, the biologists and scientists who push forth EP; Richard Dawkins, Matt Ridley and others. On the other, certain feminist groups who consider that such views clash with their freedoms.

The accusation made by the second group, in true post-structuralist fashion, is that the claims of EP are sexist, and they back up their attack, for it cannot be described in any other terms, by rightly pointing out that the evolutionists lack evidence and much of what they write about is hearsay. Natalie Angier, who has coined the derogative term "evo psychos," is at the forefront of this response. The bestselling author espouses a clear "naturist" standpoint, despite claims to belonging in the camp of, as she puts it, integrative thinking. (19)

Cosmides and Tooby, who consider the "psychic unity of humankind" can be found through EP, believe the ""Innate" is not the opposite of "learned". For EPs, the issue is never "learning" versus "innateness" or "learning" versus "instinct". The brain must have a certain kind of structure for you to learn anything at all -- after all, three pound bowls of oatmeal don't learn, but three pound brains do. If you think like an engineer, this will be clear. To learn, there must be some mechanism that causes this to occur. Since learning cannot occur in the absence of a mechanism that causes it, the mechanism that causes it must itself be unlearned -- must be "innate". (20)

Whether what we see are the results of innate features of human cognition or of learning is a hotly contested point and certainly not a minor one. Unfortunately, even though biology and zoology have produced a wide range of fascinating facts, the field of evolutionary psychology is still not able to put them together in a cohesive framework.

However, EP does not even rest on the process of evolution. Its insight lies in the fact that a connection is established between human beings and higher animals, making the assumption that instinct remains an important part of man’s neural cortex; that an animal lies dormant in every human being alive. This idea is as fascinating as it is resonant to any observer of the human condition. To disregard it the way it has been is an insult to mankind, as much could be learned from the new field. As long as its evolution is molded by science and not politics, that is.

It should be noted that the field does in fact produce grade A research. Such is the case of feminist B. Ehrenreich. Seemingly, hunter-gatherers did not organize themselves with the males leading the pack. Apparently, our ancestors would chase animals into bogs, over cliffs in order to kill them. The entire group would join in this activity; women, children as well as men, and they would all be at risk of being eaten by larger predators. (21)

Neuroscience, the study of the human brain and the nervous system, is slowly but surely beginning to allow direct measurement of thoughts and feelings. The brain mapping technology, however, is still in its infancy. The areas which can be measured are, for now, not precise enough. However, it is believed that the accuracy will be improven with time.

To neuroscience, which understands consciousness as qualia, pain is an illusion, so is the self and it has even been suggested that the spiritual experience is as well. Neuroscience holds that our brains create maps that help us attain survival in the world. The mechanisms through which perception operates are mostly involved in extracting statistical correlations from the world to create a model that is useful temporarily.

THE ROLE OF THE MEDIA

"We see only what we know." Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832)

There seems to be a sort of trickle down effect in human culture. After post-structuralism appeared in the academe, the idea that reality was relative took hold of much of the media's message, regardless of whether the media is liberal or conservative, which seems to be a moot point.

Diet progressivism is often mistaken for actual progressivism and it severely affects the ability of the latter to operate. This kind of progressivism clings to new, liberal concepts but is too narrow-minded to include other, similar ones. A diet progressive may accept the tenet that gays deserve the same kind of rights the heterosexual population has, but will hypocritically verbally harass homosexuals at the work place, public places, etc. In other words, this ideology discriminates those who are different, even when progressivism obviously rests on egalitarian concepts. Diet progressivism is, in other words, just as dependent on the status quo as conservatism is, due to its inability to vie for, well, progress.

It seems then, as though certain progressives have decided to use postmodernism to adopt incoherent socialist stands. Seemingly, we have learned absolutely nothing from the mistakes of conservatism.

Famed author J. M. Balkin writes the following regarding the work of Cass Sunstein: "Sunstein's book is an attempt at a new liberal synthesis of First Amendment theory; in particular, he attempts to reconcile the traditional left-liberal defenses of free speech with contemporary problems of campaign finance, mass media regulation, advertising power, pornography, and racist speech. His focus on these problems is not accidental. It reflects the increasing sense among liberals that libertarian solutions in these areas have become unacceptable -- an example of a more general phenomenon I call the "ideological drift" of the free speech principle. It is a tribute to Sunstein's ingenuity that he succeeds as well as he does in his task of reconciliation. Yet in so doing, he exposes a crucial fault line in theories of free speech and constitutional law generally -- a fault line organized around the meaning and value of popular culture." (22)

"Although Sunstein calls his book Democracy and the Problem of Free Speech, it could with equal justification have been called "Free Speech and the Problem of Democratic Culture." The "Problem" that concerns him is nothing less than the accelerating degradation of public culture -- a degradation both in the character of the public's viewing choices and the quality of public discourse generally."

This process results in a limited criteria, which results in even unwilling hypocrisy from the commentators. Their message, in turn, is chewed by the masses on an even simpler mode, not due to any inherent lack of capabilities, but because the tools to analyze arguments are simply not available to them.

Lee Hopkins, an advertising executive, has written a veritable exposé on the subject of human suggestibility as exploited by advertising and beyond. (23) An attempt to decipher how advertising works is offered: "Simplicity of phrase, assurance of expression, and persistence in repetition are its chief features. Repetition is, of course, the keynote, but repetition is not always easy to detect."

In a study on media influences on sexuality, the topic of agenda setting is brought up: "Although rarely thought of as sex educators, even the news media help keep sexual behavior salient. The American public and policy makers frequently are faced with news stories about abandoned babies, sex-enhancing drugs, and even presidential sexual affairs. Topics and images that are frequent and prominent in the media become topics that audiences think are important." Television offers scripts regarding how to act in life. These are repeated over and over to a young audience.

Later, it is added that: "In sum, the relatively few existing studies of the selection, interpretation, and application of sexual content in the media suggest that the mass media can affect awareness of, beliefs about, and possibly actual sexual behavior. More research is needed to say more precisely with which audiences, under what circumstances, and with which content effects occur." (24)

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY - THE ULTIMATE MAN-MADE FORCES

"Taken over the centuries, scientific ideas have exerted a force on our civilization fully as great as the more tangible practical applications of scientific research." I. Bernard Cohen (1914- ) U. S. historian of science.

J. M. Keynes believed that the world was ruled by little else than economists and political philosophers. While this is true to a degree, the power of scientists and technologists cannot be denied.

Andrew Feenberg considers democratic theory has limits: "So far as decisions affecting our daily lives are concerned, political democracy is largely overshadowed by the enormous power wielded by the masters of technical systems: corporate and military leaders, and professional associations of groups such as physicians and engineers." (25)

The author, who believes we live in a dystopian modernity, goes on to state: "I believe that unless democracy can be extended beyond its traditional bounds into the technically mediated domains of social life, its use value will continue to decline, participation will wither, and the institutions we identify with a free society will gradually disappear."

For the epistemology enthusiast, there is no better moment than catching a highly capable professional committing a fallacy. This also serves as a painful reminder that, if the most proficient can make blatant mistakes of logic, then the odds anyone else will fall prey to fallacious argumentation is quite considerable indeed.

For instance, the history of CSICOP, the skeptical organization, offers some guidelines as to how not to run a scientific institution. Slowly but surely, criticism stemming from within the organization has been appearing in several places. The most noteworthy concerns one of the founding members of the society, the late Carl Sagan himself, who refused to sign a manifesto denouncing astrology entitled “Objections to Astrology,” because he realized that, while he had no belief in it, he could not prove the phenomenon did not exist. CSICOP produced only one organized investigation, which centered on the influence “The Mars Effect” purportedly had on athletic performance. Shortly after its publication, Dennis Rawlins, the project’s statitian, published a denunciation claiming manipulation of data. As well, James Randi’s livelihood depends on the paranormal not existing; a clear conflict of interests.

Nevertheless, CSICIOP wields considerable power.

THE FUTURE OF REALITY
"More than ever, the creation of the ridiculous is almost impossible because of the competition it receives from reality." Robert A. Baker (1937- ) U. S. author.
We live in a society where a man has recently wedded his Playstation. The concept of a 21st century digital persona is, as the 21st century itself, only beginning its course. Different scenarios present themselves as to how society and technology may hold for the future. Either things could degenerate into an Orwellian reality or, more predictably, science may step in and begin to modify life itself.

Commenting on Vernor Vinge's paper on a technological singularity, J.B.S. Haldane states: "If scientific knowledge and technological innovation continue to increase at their present rates, approximately doubling over constant periods of time, then, by Vinge's analysis, it may soon be possible to create superhuman intelligence." (26)

The book treats the possibility of an upcoming human-computer symbiosis. He later adds: "the possibility that we can build a computer that possesses superhuman intelligence has become so realistic it simply cannot be ignored. Keep in mind, we live in a probabilistic universe. Even if the probability of superhuman machine intelligence is very low, it remains a possibility that may actually be realized within the lifetimes of most of the readers of this book."

Another author considers the future will be a future where hedonism will become the planetary way of life. (27)

First, he explains why hedonism has a bad reputation: "In Brave New World, Huxley contrives to exploit the anxieties of his bourgeois audience about both Soviet Communism and Fordist American capitalism. He taps into, and then feeds, our revulsion at Pavlovian-style behavioral conditioning and eugenics."

Later he clarifies his own view: "In contrast to Brave New World, however, the death of ageing won't be followed by our swift demise after a sixty-odd year life-span. We'll have to reconcile ourselves to the prospect of living happily ever after. Scare-mongering prophets of doom notwithstanding, a life of unremitting bliss isn't nearly as bad as it sounds."

LEAVING THE CAVE

"An era can be said to end when its basic illusions are exhausted." Arthur Miller (1915-)

There are a number of instances in which certain scientific precepts have been put to use in social groups. The results have been quite remarkable. One author argues for the site of learning as involving multiple and intersecting communities: "For a number of years we have been exploring how to reconstitute everyday classroom practices in the upper primary school using a sociocultural perspective as a tool, both to generate new practices and to critically reflect on change as it occurred. One strategy we've used is "collective argumentation", a small group format that is designed to extend the range of speaking opportunities available to students in the classroom. Collective argumentation is organized around a key word format - represent the task or problem alone, compare representations within a small group of peers, explain and justify the various representations to each other in the small group, reach agreement within the group, and finally present the group's ideas and representations to the class to test their acceptance by the wider community of peers and the teacher." (28)

Higher education institutions where "coaching" is taught are flourishing in Latin America. Even though its beginnings have some influence from the new age, coaching has little to do with the new age itself. Instead, what is offered is a set of guidelines to practice personal applied epistemology. Since the studies are centered around the detection of bias and prejudice in oneself, the personal experiences that some students recount are certainly life-changing.

It could be propounded that a large portion of the population could in fact be acting as advocates for the old evolutionary system, wherein the different become the dead, and another, smaller portion, would be embracing "guided evolution," as understood by the advancement of science and technology. A particular group of individuals would subtly be aiding in increasing the death rate of the very people who are decreasing their own. How is this so? Science has advanced the human life span by making changes in nourishment and education. Science is practiced by no other than intellectuals.

Carl Sagan invented the "Baloney Detection Kit," a list of logical fallacies which serves the purpose of spotting seemingly functioning yet flawed arguments. It was so well conceived that, when used to analyse Sagan's own work, it actually tears a few of the author's passages to shreds.

Changing our superficial views seems to be the only way we will be able to call ourselves civilized citizens of the twenty first century. The power of science, however, is likely to change the human landscape in the forthcoming decades and agreement over this process is likely to blossom in the not too distant future.

REFERENCES

1. Rosenthal, A.M. Thirty-Eight Witnesses: The Kitty Genovese Case. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999

2. R. A. Shweder and E. Bourne, Does the concept of the person vary cross-culturally? in Cultural Conceptions of Mental Health and Therapy, A. J. Marsella and G. White, Eds. (Reidel, Boston, 1982), pp. 129-130.

3. D. V. Suárez, Fuga de cerebros argentinos: causas y consecuencias de un fenómeno que continúa, Littec

4. C. Darwin, The Autobiography of Charles Darwin, W. W. Norton & Company, 1993

5. H. A. Míguez, Opinión: Lo que es bueno para el cerebro, La Nación, August 2005

6. S. Thomas, Only the bright commit suicide, The Times, September 2005

7. Online: http://www.clarin.com/diario/2005/01/16/sociedad/s-03415.htm

8. P. Földiak & M. P. Young, Sparse coding in the primate cortex in The Handbook of Brain Theory and Neural Networks, MIT Press, 1995,  pp. 895-898.

9. J. D. Brown, The self, Boston: McGraw-Hill, 1997

10. Chang & Asakawa, 2003

11. R. F. Baumeister, M.R. Leary, The need to belong: desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation in Psychol. Bull., May 1995

12. Suedfeld, 1997

13. J. M. Twenge, R. F. Baumeister, Social exclusion increases agression and self-defeating behavior while defeating intelligent thought and prosocial behavior in The Social Psychology of Inclusion and Exclusion

14. A. Todorov & J. S. Uleman, Spontaneous Trait Inferences Are Bound to Actors’ Faces: Evidence From a False Recognition Paradigm in Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 3 N. 5, 2002

15. J. Carey Ed., Brain Facts: A Primer on the Brain and Nervous System, The Society for Neuroscience, 2002

16. T. Blass, Obedience to Authority: Current Perspectives on the Milgram Paradigm

17. K. Pope, "Torture" in "Encyclopedia of Women and Gender: Sex Similarities and Differences and the Impact of Society on Gender,"

18. C. Baker, Behavioral Genetics: An introduction to how genes and environments interact through development to shape differences in mood, personality, and intelligence, AAAS, 2004

19. Online: http://www.nytimes.com/2003/02/25/science/25BEHA.html?pagewanted=1

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